Ifc Survey Report in Ghana

IFC Survey Reports Expansion of Ghana’s Leasing Market WEBWIRE – Thursday, August 30, 2007 IFC, a member of the World Bank Group, today released the findings of its second annual survey of Ghana’s leasing market. The results show that the number of new leases issued in the country grew from 311 in 2005 to 536 at the end of 2006 – an increase of 72 percent. The total lease portfolio represented by gross lease receivables by the sector also increased by over 73 percent from $29. million in 2005 to $51. 3 million in 2006. The report notes a significant increase in the number of leasing providers, from seven in 2005 to 12 in 2007, with many banking institutions entering the sector. The Leasing in Ghana 2007 report represents the most comprehensive survey of Ghana’s leasing market to date. It highlights major developments in the leasing industry in 2006 and makes recommendations for further improvements in the policy, regulatory, and tax environments tha t govern the sector. The report was compiled by the SECO IFC Leasing Program, a project that seeks to enhance the role of leasing as an alternative financing mechanism for businesses in Ghana. Launching the report, Taba Cookey, SECO IFC Leasing Program Manager, said, â€Å"IFC is committed to supporting efforts that deepen Ghana’s financial sector and expand access to finance for the private sector. The 2007 survey provides strong evidence that the leasing sector is playing an increasingly important role in financing the needs of private businesses in Ghana. Philippe Sas, Economic Advisor at SECO, said, â€Å"Leasing is important, because it benefits mostly small and medium enterprises that generally cannot access financing from banking institutions. It makes it easier for these businesses to acquire capital equipment even when they lack the credit history or sufficient collateral to access traditional forms of financing. † Speaking at the launch, Dela Selormey, Head of Banking Supervision at the Bank of Ghana, commended the development of the leasing sector and outlined various efforts by the bank to support further growth of the financial sector. Worldwide, leasing has demonstrated the ability to increase investment in capital equipment. Leasing plays an important role in economic development. For example, it is reported that every 8 to 9 percent growth in leasing activities leads to a corresponding 1 percent average growth in a country’s GDP. In developed countries, leasing is used to finance about one-third of private investments.

Iraq War Essay

The Iraq War has attracted news coverage from around the world. Various television stations in countries like the US and the UK have news correspondents and news bureaus in the area to cover war-related updates and happenings. However, there were concerns on how media frames and delivers their news. Most of these news reports are accused of being biased, choosing to show only the negative aspects of the war. Two authors have written about this occurrence. One of them points out that most of the stories that reaches the audience is negative, while the other one points out the flaws reporting only the good aspects of war. By critically analyzing these two articles, it is possible to gain useful information as to why the news coverage in Iraq are framed as such. The first article is The Real Iraq Story by Karl Zinsmeister. This talks about the bias towards negative news by the foreign news coverage (Zinsmeister, 2004). It cites certain examples of bad news coverage in Iraq. From the plight of detainees in an Iraqi prison to the power shortages in Iraqi towns and cities, foreign news teams like CNN and BBC clearly chose to report on the negative aspects of certain topics. According to Zinmeister, this type of media coverage clearly affects how people around the world see the Iraq war. By showing mostly the negative aspects of the war, people tend to overlook its purpose. By showing the prison conditions of the detainees, the people are more drawn to the cruelties of war, instead of thinking who these detainees were. On the other hand, Phillip Carter’s The dark side of Iraq’s good news talks about the bias on the good news by recent Iraqi reports (Carter, 2007). These are more recent than the bias on negative news by foreign news correspondents, and these were reported by the Iraqi media. These reports are mostly about the declining Iraqi civilian death toll, increasing number of Iraqis joining US military to secure neighborhoods, and the capture of top insurgent leaders. Despite the majority of the good news, the author argues that focusing on these topics may mislead the people. They could develop a false sense of security, which would just worsen their situation. Going back to Zinsmeister article, we can assume that there is a motive behind the mostly negative news coverage. As the war continues, more and more people are starting to oppose it, doubting the intentions of those who are pursuing it. Political leaders like US President George W. Bush attracted the opposition of the international community because of the US occupation of Iraq in relation to his war on terror. If we relate this to the negative news coverage in Iraq, then it is possible that this is one way of opposing those who pursue this war. News coverage like this clearly draws out the sympathy of the people, especially if they continue to see its negative side. On the other hand, the mostly positive Iraqi news coverage could mean the opposite. By reporting only the good news, the media are trying to build up a positive image for Iraq. By reporting every improving statistic and leaving out the negative ones, people can be lulled to believing that indeed, Iraq has improved greatly. However, with mostly the positive news being covered, it seems that the Iraqi media are overdoing it and would appear that they’re just covering up the real scenario (Kelly, 2007). Moreover, this faulty news coverage had the international community thinking: can the Iraqi people really do it? Will they be able to stand on their own after the war? References: Carter, P. (2007). The dark side of Iraq’s good news. Retrieved July 18, 2009, from http://www. slate. com/id/2177250/ Kelly, M. L. (2007). Good, Bad News in Iraq Intelligence Estimate. Retrieved July 18, 2009, from http://www. npr. org/templates/story/story. php? storyId=13920438 Zinsmeister, K. (2004). The Real Iraq Story. Retrieved July 18, 2009, from http://www. nationalreview. com/comment/zinsmeister200408040849. asp

Case Study About Trust Report Essay

Trust is the ability to rely confidently, either on an individual or in this scenario the company’s product. It is judged on three dimensions; namely, the ability to be technically competent, its benevolence, that is, the interests and motives, and, finally, the integrity. Positive judgment is a good reflect on the customers’ will to take part in the organization’s dealings. This act may involve buying the company’s products, investing in its stocks, or being an employee. In case any of the attributes become questionable, it may make the customers wary and reluctant in risk taking (Kourdi & Bibb, 2007). Distrust in the organization may increase inefficiencies of innovation and damage relationships. Causes leading to the loss of trust Toyota Motor Corporation is a Japan based motor manufacturer. Its headquarters are in Aichi, Japan. This corporation was founded in 1937 and had been since among the best performing motor manufacturers and dealers in the world. With more than 3 billion yen as profit in a fiscal year, as per the financial report of 2013, Toyota could be said to be among what Forbes magazine would name the top 100 best corporations (Kourdi & Bibb, 2007). Since the year 2004 to 2010, there had been several complains on Toyota Motors concerning engines and accelerators. On 28 August 2009, a tragic accident occurred in San Diego involving a family travelling in a Toyota Lexus. The car lost control and all the passengers died. Toyota, known for its impeccable repute for reliability and quality products suddenly had to deal with trust crisis. A deficiency in attributes that lead to trust of the company’s products and services in form of a scandal can lead to instant lack of trust (Blackshaw, 2008). An effective response to a trust scandal or failure needs interventions that are aimed at curbing distrust and  rebuilding trustworthiness. Distrust regulation can be done through enforcing controls, conditions, and constraints to employees in order to rectify the failure. Intervening may require the removal of guilty parties, the change of the cultural norms of the organization, and introduction of new or the revision of incentives (Blackshaw, 2008). This is not sufficient. Statements and actions too are needed to demonstrate trustworthiness. Statements that show the company’s compelling ability, integrity, and benevolence are required. Apologies, transparency, and ethical practice are required as well. How effective do you consider the taken mitigation actions? Effective repair of trust should undergo simple steps. The first is immediate response to Toyota Corporation belated communications; belated recalls and public apologies damaged its reputation more than the original accident (Liker, 2004). The company ended up losing its sales, investors, and market share. They also lost customer confidence. Toyota Company expressed concern by realizing a statement where they apologized to the family of the victims. It also pledged to carry out investigations. However, the company, regrettably, did not point out the possible causes. This seems like an effective immediate response but it is required for a company to point out to possible causes. Later, the floor mats were suspected to be the likely cause of two accidents that had occurred earlier, but this did not prompt the company into issuing a customer warning (Liker, 2004). They acted upon the suspicions five days after the analysis of the cause was confirmed. This was nineteen days after the fatal accidents. In order to rebuild customer, employee, and investor trust, Toyota Motors released a statement assuring their customers that the floor mats were in good conditions and safe. They praised them as being among the safest mats. This statement was later challenged by NHTSA who accused the company of releasing misleading and inaccurate reports. In a bid to save itself from further downfall, Toyota Motors reacted by giving a remedy to the sticky floor mats. This action caused discretion among investors who thought of the company to have had unclear motives when they released the first statement (Liker, Hoseus, & Center for Quality People and Organizations, 2008). This further dented the trust of the shareholders. The mitigation process of the Toyota Company took  a long time, hence more damage to be controlled. It was ineffective at the beginning, which was a blow to the shareholders. Although the company founder Akio Toyoda later sent out apologies and through the wall street journal expressed his commitment to reforming the company towards better and safe products with the aim of repairing the damage that had been done (Liker, Hoseus, & Center for Quality People and Organizations, 2008). The company through the court compensated the family that had lost their relatives through the accident. This was a step to convey the company’s acceptance of the guilt. Consequences of not addressing trust issues Failure to respond to issues and address the remedies publicly can lead to severe disciplinary actions on a company. These actions may include its termination and payment of fine; Toyota Company due to its sluggish manner of responding to the claims against its products was fined $16.4million (Pelletier, 2005). This is because the company failed to warn its customers thereafter. Toyota accepted its penance. Do you believe that the company’s reputation can be re-build, or will they suffer the consequences also in the years to come? Despite the tarnishing of Toyota Corporation’s reputation, the customers’ and investors’ trust will be rebuilt. The actions that the company undertook such as restricting the company’s management team and procuring a new safety system have seen the company rise to becoming once again among the most profitable companies in the world (Pelletier, 2005). The company is rebuilding itself since the 2009 failure. It has had numerous innovations and recently announced mass hiring of employees. References Bibb, S., Kourdi, J., & Bibb, S. (2007). A question of trust: The crucial nature of trust – and how to build it in your work and life. London: Cyan. Blackshaw, P. (2008). Satisfied customers tell three friends, angry customers tell 3,000: Running a business in today’s consumer driven world. New York: Doubleday. Liker, J. K. (2004). The Toyota way: 14 management principles from the world’s greatest manufacturer. New York: McGraw-Hill.Top of Form Top of FormLiker, J. K., Hoseus, M., & Center for Quality People and Organizations. (2008). Toyota culture: The heart and soul of the Toyota way. New York: McGraw-Hill. Pelletier, R. (2005). It’s all about service: How to lead your people to care for your customers. Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley & Sons Bottom of Form Bottom of Form

Cluster headache case study pathophysioloy class

Cluster headache pathophysioloy class - Case Study Example Individuals who suffer from this type of headache experience recurrent severe, one-sided (unilateral) headache pain. These attacks occur at intervals with spontaneous remissions that stop the continuous progress of pain though a smaller percentage of individuals do not experience this interrupt. Cluster headaches are mostly incurable, but prevention can be put in place. Acute attacks can be treated through giving the patient plenty supply of oxygen or triptan which is fast acting. Verapamil uses a prevention mechanism has been widely acceptable and is commonly used as a prophylactic therapy. The use of verapamil sometimes calls for use of steroids before it starts to take effect (Friedman BW, 2009). Cluster headache proportionally affects a 0.2% of the general population with men being affected most. The ratio of men to women who suffer from cluster headache ranges from 2.5:1 to 3.5:1. P.T has a three years history of cluster headache, and he is 35 years of age. He has gone to a neurological clinic for follow-up and revealed that he experienced any headache for a period of one year until they started six weeks ago. He has been involved in a divorce and also lost her mother who succumbed to cancer recently. He shifted to a new job a few weeks ago. He states that his headaches starts from nowhere and reaches its highest level of pain within 10 minutes. An intense and extreme headache pain is experienced, and it is unilateral only affecting one side of the head typically above the eye. The pain runs from above the eye to the temple and reaches the left cheek. During a headache, the eye starts to water profusely and also a runny nose is on the go. The headaches have been episodic, lasting for approximately two and a half hours and occurring between 9am to 9pm daily during the last five days. Drugs such as ibuprofen nor acetaminophen have been ineffective in relieving pain during headaches. There are no photophobic instances associated

Alexander pharaoh of egypt Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Alexander pharaoh of egypt - Essay Example For thirty years, he established one of the biggest empires of the prehistoric world. The empire overextended from Egypt to Greece and also into the north western part of India. In fact, Alexander was never defeated in any wars and to date he is deliberated as one of the supreme prosperous military commanding officers. Further, in his crusade that was contrary to the mighty Persian Empire of Darius III, Alexander the great spent some months in Egypt. Regardless of the hostilities Alexander received from the Spartans, he emerged victoriously against Persia. The first war that he emerged victoriously was the battle of Granicus that was battling in the year 334 BC in present-day Turkey, and not so far from the prehistoric town of Troy. He was considered to have fought twenty thousand Persian horsemen and foot soldiers of the same number. After that, he moved to the western coast of Turkey, taking towns and trying to refute Persian navy of stations (Thomas, 7). The second major fight that Alexander won was the most significant of all fights. The war was known as the battle of Issus, which occurred in the year 334 BC, in southern Turkey at a prehistoric town known as Issus that was near to the present-day Syria. The Battle of Issus was directed by Darius III himself and Arrian estimates that Darius had a team of six hundred thousand troops. Due to this, Alexander was reluctant to go into a fight, and this made Darius think that it was a sign of nervousness. One attendant after another encouraged Darius and thus made him announce that with his Calvary, he will crush the Macedonian military. Therefore, he started to hunt Alexander but this at first seemed like he was overwhelming Alexander’s side. This changed after Alexander presented the Persian king with a battle, and the Persians could no longer apply their higher numbers well. In addition, Arrian wrote that the Darius leftward group ran scared immediately they started battling. This made the

Electronic Customer Relationship Management Essay

Electronic Customer Relationship Management - Essay Example For businesses that have online presence, e-CRM systems provide the necessary relationship management with customers. This is a critical area because there is minimal human intervention from the company's employees when a customer logs on to the website. Hence, the impression and/ or the services that the customer gets exposed to from the website might be a decisive factor towards his/ her decision to continue business with that particular company. This paper presents an analysis of a business entity in form of an audit of its efforts to promote and use e-CRM systems. E-CRM theory is discussed and recommendations are provided to the business to improve the state of affairs. The target company for this audit is HSBC Bank Australia Limited. HSBC is a commercial bank based in London but has a huge network of branches around the globe. It is listed on the London, New York, Paris, Hong Kong and Bermuda stock exchanges and operates in a truly global fashion (HSBC, 2007). In Australia, HSBC has 35 branches and offices and provides a wide range of personal and commercial financial services in addition to other services like trade finance, investment advisory, treasury and other traditional banking operations. As a customer browsing a financial institution's websites, the ideal e-experience should not be distinguishable from the experience the user would have when he or she visits the bank physically. In a nut shell, this means that the contents of the web site should be such that no human intervention is required by the user to locate the desired information. One of the biggest advantage and disadvantage of a business website is the quantity of information that is provided on it for users (Feinberg and Kadam, 2002, p.435). This is because of the fact that the customer may not be able to identify and access the required information from a big pool of data provided on the website. Though, every piece of information might be there, yet it may take hours to find the one that is required. Hence, the website must be divided into areas with relevant information being clubbed into each area for clarity and ease of use. In addition, it should have a search facility to locate the desired information without having to navigate through the entire website for it. There are many ways that business may use to contact potential e-customers. In addition to the traditional telephone and cellular phone numbers, the business website should be able to store customers' email address, his or her website URL (if available) and other details. The electronic Customer Relationship Management e-CRM system must be equipped with appropriate records about users and customers and should use alternate channels to contact the customer. Similarly, alternate channels should be provided to the customers to contact the business. These might include email address, telephone, fax number, live chat and others. Ideally though, email addresses are easiest to use if there is no live chat feature available on the website. In addition, ideally the business website should remember the customer. This can be done by saving cookies on customers' computers that can be used during customers' next visit to the website, to track the information that they viewed during their last visit. The relationship with business

Alternative Pain Therapy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 8750 words

Alternative Pain Therapy - Research Paper Example Tragedies that could otherwise been avoided have motivated me to do the research and study options of minimizing pain and assess whether they are better compared to the conventional methods being used. I would like to acknowledge my friends and family for their unwavering support throughout the research time. I would also like to thank and acknowledge my course professor and supervisor whose support and guidance really helped me to successfully complete this research paper. Abstract This project was titled alternative chronic pain treatments due to the idea that came up to me as result of the several tragic fatalities linked to analgesics that have occurred. Analgesics have been used to treat pains for quite a long time, but an incident in Afghanistan where a soldier massacred seventeen people due to side effects of the drug raised lots of concern. The literature review will further look at the various researches that have been associated with the side effects of analgesics. Differen t statistical reports and researches are illustrated in the literature review to back up these numerous theories. The motivation for this paper was large due to the fact that when solving a problem, there is always the endeavor to make the situation better than it was. However, this was not the case for the analgesics. As we will see in the literature review, soldiers are tremendously being affected by side effects of analgesics. From this observation, it can be said authoritatively that the study into the alternative pain relief methods is justified. The methodology went ahead and used descriptive statistical technique for its reliability and for the fact that it can be used comprehensively with both qualitative and quantitative statistical techniques. This gave room for the data to be collected through the various ways associated to the two different techniques. The data collection was done through structured questionnaires that were well pre-tested and administered to the target population. The data analysis was performed through Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), and the data presented using tables and figures. CHAPTER ONE Introduction Pain in human bodies always reflects an injury that requires medical attention and care. The nervous system is triggered to send information and alert the brain of a possible injury within the body. On the other hand, chronic pain is a very persistent and constant pain that never goes, it keeps occurring causing a lot of discomfort and inconvenience to an individual (National Institute of Health, 2013). Body pain causes a lot of discomfort to an individual irrespective of the short period of time they may take. Therefore, constant and repeatedly painful occurrence such as chronic pains should be addressed with the seriousness they deserve. Effective methods of handling the pain and helping the affected people feel relieved and better is indispensable (National Institu

Evaluate the claim that migrants represent a threat to the UK economy Essay

Evaluate the claim that migrants represent a threat to the UK economy - Essay Example In a radio interview, for instance, Seimon Glynn, a rural British resident commented: â€Å"We are faced with a situation now where we are getting tidal waves of migration, inward migration into our rural areas from England, and these people are coming here to live to establish themselves here, and to influence our communities and our culture with their own. (____________________, p167) This state pretty much summed up the prevailing attitude towards immigration in the UK. It was made in reference to "inward migration," the influx of new inhabitants that are actually British subjects themselves. With the issue of foreign migration, the resentment and general negative opinion about alien workers are certainly more antagonistic and hostile. With Glynn's point of view, the two general claims against immigration were highlighted: first is that immigration takes away jobs and drain resources; and, secondly, they influence and change communities. This paper will examine if immigration, in deed, harms the UK economy in the context of these two areas. Effect on Cultural Homogeneity A fundamental consequence of immigration is multiculturalism and diversity. There is a persistent notion that they erode and threaten social cohesion and solidarity in Britain. It is not unlike a case about â€Å"they† and â€Å"us† or the concept of â€Å"otherness† that is quite at home with the British society’s imperial past and tendency to side with unity instead of diversity. What this circumstance contributes in the economic discourse of immigration is to reinforce and legitimize the view that diversity taxes obligations behind good society and the welfare state. As wave upon wave of immigrants arrive on British soils, more and more citizens are becoming concerned about the way the state would be obligated to support their needs. Hayes, for example, quipped that â€Å"refugees have begun to look like beggars at the gate, or even thieves† establishing the argument about how immigrants are becoming costly, burdensome, needy, and, hence, undesir able for the kingdom. (cited in Cohen, Humphries and Mynott 2002, p30) Indeed, as a welfare state, Britain is forced to support immigrants with benefits, usually in the form of services as well as cash through a national dispersal system. The prevailing perspective is that this would be unfair to citizens who have to share with the foreign population the services and benefits that their taxes have paid for. Then there is the issue of whether the state of the government’s finances could bear the brunt of these additional mouths to feed. As has been demonstrated in the way foreign workers were perceived to be a burden, the influx of immigrants to the United Kingdom, for some sectors, is seen to have a negative impact on the value of rights and privileges of the British citizens. For instance, the right to buy land of citizens may rightly be infringed or that as the government grants access to the labour market without any effective mechanism that regulate the way employers hire foreign workers by ensuring that it there is no available or suitable workers available in the country. (International Organization for Migration, p50-51) This aspect in the immigration controversy is quite complicated because it is tainted by bias and prejudice. The fact is that immigrants are highly restricted by the government. The stringent procedures and requirements for migrant workers ensure that those accepted into the country are only those desirable and those that could contribute to the UK economy. Cohen, Humphries

Dd-aa Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Dd-aa - Assignment Example The reverse movement in the above variables will result in a leftward shift. The AA curve illustrates the relationship between changes in the exogenous variable which is the Gross National Product as well as one of the endogenous variables known as the exchange rate located in the asset market model. The curve operates effectively as long as all the other exogenous variables are fixed. Factors that cause an upward shift in the AA curve include an increase in money supply, foreign interest rates and expected exchange rate. It may also be due to decline in the domestic price. Reverse changes in the above factors will lead to a downward shift in the AA curve (Friedman, 102-134). The DD-curve indicates a set of equilibrium in the Goods and Service market by describing the level of GNP at the prevailing exchange rate while the AA-curve shows a set of equilibrium in the asset market. A combination of the DD and AA curve will result in an equilibrium point at which the role played by both firms as well as households will influence a movement in the exchange rate and Gross Domestic Product level provided that other exogenous variables are fixed. Fiscal policy refer to the impact of government spending and taxation on macroeconomic conditions while monetary policy refers to the actions of the central bank that influences the supply of money in the

Contrasting Differences in Family Life in USA and Mexico Essay Example for Free

Contrasting Differences in Family Life in USA and Mexico Essay The family is the basic unit of any particular society or community. It is therefore imperative that for the society to exist the family has to be there to produce members into the community. The community or national character any particular country is basically determined by the nature of the family values. An individual is shaped in the early ages by the family. In the contemporary society there are increased diversity changes in the family a characteristic of the many changes in culture, political, economic, social, and psychological and even the environment. The content definition of has not been agreed upon because of the great changes that are so accommodating. In the previous many years the family was considered as the people who are related by blood. This definition based on the kinship ties has been revoked due to the influence of many forms of families which has stripped off the family its actual definition. For instance there can husband and wife who do not have any kinship ties and they go ahead to adopt children. Another case that has changed such a definition of the family based on kinship ties is the increasing number of intermarriage within the context of race or ethnicity. This brings out a mixture of offspring and therefore it is difficult to trace the family bonds based on kinship ties. The issue of who is next to kin is no longer important in the current families. The most common aspect in the current families is the bonding based on mutual understanding. The many changes of husband and wife have been changed by the introduction of lesbianism and gay. These try to go against the grain of opposite gender type of marriage. The concept of marriage has changed from opposite gender type of marriage to a mixture of gay, lesbianism and opposite gender marriages. These are some of the dynamisms that are facing the contemporary families. This paper shall give an indebt analysis of the family, the changes in roles and functions of the families and the general effects of such changes to the contemporary families. A close reference and examples shall be drawn from the US and Mexico, the countries that border each other geographically. The contrasting differences I n family issues shall be pointed out clearly. Family life in the United States The family relationship in the United States has undergone several transformations due to the effect of globalization. Race and ethnicity are the most significant factors in shaping the variety of values, attitudes and behaviour amongst the families in the United States. There are a number of changes in families in the United States. These changes range from political, social, economic, and psychological to spiritual. The social dislocations have given rise to new ideas and values especially there is increased individualism among the members of the community. In the US there increased diversity in the organizational structures. There are many cases of divorce and separation in the United Stated which has grabbed the family the unity and love that is supposed to be enjoyed. Most the single families that are common in the US are as a result of divorce and remarriage due to greater democratization. (Hines Morrison, 2005) Cultural diversity in the US is accounting for the many different types of families that have emerged in the recent past. The United States constitutes almost all races and ethnic groups in the world. For this reason there are diverse cultural values as a resulting of this contact. The factor that there are free intermarriages between these diverse races and ethnic groups has made the US to have diverse cultural values which transcend the native culture. The immigrants who move to the United State try to maintain their native language despite the fact that they are forced to learn the official language of the United States, which is English. The immigrants from Spanish speaking countries (Hispanic) when they move to the United States they try to maintain their languages. The culture of the people is usually transmitted through language and due to the numerous languages in the United States there exists different cultures. This means that there are very many family clusters formed through the sharing of the languages. For instance most of the Hispanic immigrants have formed family clusters in the sides of Florida. The black American speaks a variety of English as they identify themselves as belonging or originating from one family. These disparities have affected the notion of the family because these people are allowed to mix freely with people from different cultures. The concept of the family in the United States is changing even the more during the advent of the green card where people from different pasts acquire citizenship. Many people from different races and ethnic groups have found their way to the US and as such most of them are allowed to move with their families. The nuclear family still remains an ideal source of the society in the United States. The United States families are characterized by the great social stratification. In the United the families are organized according to different classes. Among these classes there are great disparities in terms of economic value. The choice of families has not taken shift from mutual understanding to materials and resources. This has affected relationships from a sociological point of view. This issue of the class is a dominant phenomenon among the families in the United States as those who are rich wants to maintain the status quo. This is done through the inheritance that is passed within the nuclear families. The nuclear families in the United States are created and broken up and then reconstituted. This has led to the decline of family values which consequently affects the family patterns. This diversity in family pattern has been identified as the cause of problems such as violence, crime and drug use in the united state. The parents are usually very busy with their duties (United States, Congress, 1992). The increasing cases of divorce and separation in the United States have a negative effect on maintaining the ideal norms of the nuclear family value. The families that are exposed to values outside the parental domain are likely to deviate from norms. The human rights in the United States are considered fundamental. There is protection of the universal human right which is a recipe to the process of democratization. This the reason why the US government invest huge amount of money in education health and other basic sectors so as to enhance the promotion of the human rights among the citizens. The Family Life in Mexico Most people have preferred to live in Mexico for a variety of reasons such as social, political, economic and even good climatic reasons. Living in Mexico requires one to learn the Spanish language so as to increase effective communication. This is because the families are socialized in the Spanish language. The Mexican people are extremely warm and friendly as they are organized in smaller communities that come from the mutually intelligible families. This means that the socialization process is high since there tow much contact between the families. The family bonds are tightly held together and for this reason there is cultural uniformity. The society per se is integrated under common cultural values through the common language shared. Piped water is relatively inexpensive, but not always potable (drinkable). Decades of under-investment, combined with an attitude of impertinence towards paying water bills, has left Mexicos mains water system in poor condition. As a result, most people purchase bottled water, often in 20L containers. Bottled water is very expensive. Rents in Mexico can be higher than in equivalent-sized US towns or cities if the place is popular or fashionable, particularly places within easy reach of the US border. Mexico has a centralized economy: that is, most of the countrys economic activity revolves around. The Mexican pace of life is relatively slower than in the US Especially when the life in major cities is given consideration. The families in Mexico are closely tied as most of the families have time to attend to their families. There is a high degree of parental responsibility among the families. This transcends to greater heights of good values that the society enjoys. Mexico’s culture has a rich history in a consolidated family religion, people and tradition. The Mexican people are proud of their culture that they keep on passing from one generation to another. This is because there is little infusion of the foreign cultures. The family is the basic unit in Mexico and a cornerstone to the maintenance of the culture. The rate of socialization and interaction among these people is too high. It is a usual phenomenon to meet two or more families meeting for a common interest or for a special event. This part of the family function in Mexico, people in Mexico have free time to visit resort centers for the purpose of relaxation which is not a common phenomenon in the United States, where people are too busy. (Heymann, 2006) The Mexican People are too religious which is a big contrast with the United States where people feel that they are in control; of their own life. A large number of people are Christian and they are usually committed to going to church. When you walk in the Mexican homes it is easy for you to see the religious images. In America people stay a non-religious life thus an effect of religious intermingling that has made it difficult for the people to which religious practice to adopt. Thus they resign from subscribing to any of the religious practice. The social stratification is not prevalent in the Mexican family as it is in the United States; people are seeking for money the Mexican people strive for titles. The professionals in Mexico prefer to be addressed with the titles that they deserve. This is as a result of the traditional emphasis given to the tittles within the family domain. The economic living standards in Mexico are slightly lower than in the United State. There are many poor people in Mexico than in the United States. The impact of these high levels of poverty in Mexico has necessitated the immigration of most Mexican families to the United States in search of better jobs and pay of most illegal immigrants from Mexico have gotten their way into the United States through the Mexican borders. These immigrants have settled in cities such as Florida. Working in the United States gives them better pay. This aspect of brain drain is lowering the general development of the families in Mexico as most of the people move leaving behind other family members Basically the cost of living in Mexico is lower than that of the US particularly for agricultural produce. Other sectors such as transport and communication are also lower in Mexico than I n the United States. Other utilities as electricity are more expensive compared to the United State. Working families in the United States, observing how parents struggled to find a balance between caring for children and earning a decent income. When parents split and one of the parents went from Mexico to the United States and was no longer available to give the necessary care, families suffer. What significantly exacerbates the problem is when the borders are so tight that they prevent families from reuniting. This has been a common phenomenon when the immigrants are not given the opportunity by the America to even visit their families in back home in Mexico. (Poole M. et al, 1993) Globalization of the economy created increased pressure for workers to accept lower labor standards, accept lower wages, longer hours, fewer benefits, and less paid leave. Both Nations likewise feel pressure from economic globalization not to implement family-friendly policies, such as paid leave for illness or when a child is sick, or paid parental leave. And that leaves working families struggling to balance work and their care-giving duties. The globalization process has affected families in both Mexico and United States economy was transforming the relationship between work and care-giving in similar ways everywhere. Globalization has forcing both countries to at a very high pace as far as labor standards and social policies are concerned hence leaving working parents with less and less time to raise their children. Parents work has shifted markedly around the world and that goes for every region. The child rearing process has been left in the hands of maids who offer supportive care while the parents are away working till late hours of the day. Men in particular have been moving away from one place to another in search of better jobs especially in various industries. Globalization has made men and women to work day and night and this has made them move away from their homes to go work in various places. A good example is that of outsourcing where people work in shifts where some work during the day and others at night. Women, likewise, have moved into the paid labor force and away from the home. From the period between 1960 and 2000 the number of women in the labor force went from 26 to 38 percent in America. The percentage of women in the workplace has increased both in the United States and Mexico. This has adversely affected the family care services that were provided by the women while their men were working in various sectors. This is a result of civilization which been brought about by the factors such as education, religion, work, urbanization among others. These factors have changed the various roles that were supposed to be executed by the family so as to prepare an individual to be a responsible member of the society. (Cecil, 1992) What has happened is that the world has seen women get better job opportunities which has assisted then them raise income to cater for their families. The increased number of single parent families has made it possible for the women to struggle to get money for rearing their families. While this is was going on there is also massive urbanization occurring all across the world. Thats not necessarily a bad thing, as people who move from very poor rural areas to urban areas often get better jobs, and become less dependent on, for instance, a good rain to feed their families. (Rowntree, Lewis, Price Wyckoff, 2006). References Hines D. A. , Morrison K. (2005) Family Violence in the United States: Defining, Understanding, and Combating. Sage Publisher. Heymann J. (2006) Forgotten Families: Ending the Growing Crisis Confronting Children and Working Parents in the Global Economy. Oxford University Press Poole M. et al (1993) Family: Changing Families, Changing Times. Allen Unwin publisher. Robinson, Cecil. (1992). No short journeys: The interplay of cultures in the history and Literature of the borderlands. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. Rowntree L. , Lewis M. , Price M. and Wyckoff W. (2006). Diversity amid Globalization: World Regions, Environment, Development. United States, Congress. House America’s (1992) Families: Conditions, Trends, Hopes, and Fears: Family policy. United States, Congress, House publisher.

Press Barons Of The 20th Century Media Essay

Press Barons Of The 20th Century Media Essay Studying the history of communication incorporates a review of how media and media form have developed over the years as well as their impact in the socio-political spheres of the contemporary society. In this paper, the discussion shall exclusively focus on the history of the press barons in the 20th Century. The paper is structured in progressively discursive sections where the discussion is elevated in a sequential manner towards a conclusion. To begin with, the paper will define the term press barons and introduce the prominent press barons of 20th century. The second section with then detail the social and political impacts of the press barons with numerous examples as provided by relevant literature. The third section of the paper will review the press barons of the 20th century and their influence of contemporary media. The section will allow for opinionated hypotheses backed by credible research evidence, thus terminating with a conclusion on the issues raised throughout the paper. Press Barons of the 20th Century In typical use, the term press baron denotes a media proprietor, during the time when the media referred exclusively to the printed press. A press baron was any person who controlled, either by virtue of personal ownership or by having a dominant share portfolio in the mass media company. In other contexts, media proprietors have been called media tycoons and media moguls (Coleridge 1993, pp. 18 53). Media proprietors only became a significant group of celebrities at the close of the 19th century consequent to the launch development of newspapers as mass circulating publications (Coleridge 1993, pp. 18 53). During this era, the most notable press owners and or controllers included, Lord Rothermere, Lord Northcliffe and Lord Beaverbrook all from and operating in the UK, while William Randolph Hearst stood as the pioneer press baron in the US (Coleridge 1993, pp. 18 53). At the beginning of the 20th Century, the mass media platforms grew to include radio and television as well as book publishing houses and film studios (Coleridge 1993, pp. 18 53). Consequently, the proprietors of these new media became media barons and not just press barons as they had been referred to when newspapers was all the mass medium available (Coleridge 1993, pp. 18 53). For the purposes of this paper, the term press baron shall refer to the pioneer media proprietors who owned and or controlled mainly newspaper publications in the 20th century. In this age, the press barons of repute with the ownership and control of a series of newspapers, and later several radio and TV networks, have included Rupert Murdoch (News Corporation), Silvio Berlusconi, Robert Maxwell, Axel Springer, Ted Turner, Conrad Black and Bill Bresnan (Bagdikian 1999, pp. 148-154). To this list, one can add Samir Jain add Vineet Jain the proprietors of The Times Group, Serge Dassault of the Dassault Group, Richard Desmond of Northern, Shell and Express Newspapers, Michael Eisner the chairman of Walt Disney Company, Barry Diller the CEO of InterActiveCorp and Ted Turner, of AOL Time Warner (Bagdikian 1999, pp. 148-154). The Social and Political Impacts of the Press Barons of the 20th Century The press barons bore a power that had never been given to any other group of people besides political and religious leaders (Bagdikian 1999, pp. 148-154). The newspapers cultivated a following and the ability to influence popular opinion (Bagdikian 1999, pp. 148-154). The fact that leaders in the society depended on the press to reach to the masses meant that those who had a considerable control over the press acquired a power that seemed even superior to that of political and religious leaders (Bagdikian 1999, pp. 148-154). According to Goodlad (2003), the mass media gained phenomenal importance, popularity and impact during the 20th Century to an extent that the societys mode of life was governed by what the press dictated. Goodlad (2003) points out that the so called late Victorian period saw the press gain an enormous expansion stimulated by the perpetually improving technology, as well as the elimination of the stamp taxes and paper duties imposed on the price. Consequently, the cover price of most newspapers became available to the common populace. London newspapers were courted, feared and used by politicians from all parties as a tool to gain popularity or to attack rivals (Bingham, 2010). This trend continued to the late Victorian age and even during the Edwardian period. Newspapers had a perceptible partisan attachment and loyalty to a particular political party, most being biased towards either of the two dominant parties Liberals and Conservatives (Koss 1990, pp. 67 79). Goodlad (2003) reports of a German loyalty who visited London in 1904 and opined that the chief weapon of the various Parties is the Press. According to Goodlad (2003), it is not possible to gauge in precisely terms, to what extent the readers of these newspapers shared the social and political prejudices the newspapers ascribed to. What can be used as an indicator of the power of the press in its early days is how other forms of mass communication such as posters, church pamphlets and loud announcements in meeting places, declined in circulation as the press gained popularity (Boyce 1987, pp. 56 87). Another indicator of the power that the press barons were given by the society was by the level of effort most political leaders put in cultivating close relations and even patronage with the editors of local newspapers (Bingham, 2010). A good example of such leaders includes the Liberals Grey and Asquith who are documented to have cultivated close association with J. Spender, then an influential Westminster Gazette editor (1896 and 1921) (Bingham, 2010). The press became increasingly powerful after 1910 to an extent that even politicians sought to gain direct control and ownership of the newspapers as a strategy to gain political mileage (Bingham, 2010). Other politicians had their careers made, ruined or marred by press coverage. Stanley Baldwin, the embattled British Prime Minister, once publicly accused all of the London press of biased political coverage and personalized political agendas. According to Baldwin, the press exercised the prerogative of the harlot through the ages: power without responsibility (Seymour-Ure 2008; pp. 77 84; Bingham, 2010; Curran and Seaton 2009; pp. 44 75). Lord Northcliffes The Times is said to have played a very important role in triggering Asquiths resignation as Prime Minister of Britain in 1916, after a Cabinet crisis (Bingham, 2010). The same has been noted with the American press in the last century, most notably Rupert Murdoch of the News Corporation, who was repeatedly accused of supporting particular politicians and abusing his ownership and control of the media to popularize such politicians as Margaret Thatcher, Ronald Reagan and John Howard (Bingham, 2010; Curran and Seaton 2009; pp. 44 75). In 1918 for instance, Lloyd George unsuccessfully marshalled a take-over bid for the Liberal Daily Chronicle, followed by another unsuccessful ownership bid for The Times newspaper in 1922 (Bingham, 2010). The Labour Party in collaboration with the trade union movement founded the Daily Herald in 1912 (Bingham, 2010). By 1915, newspapers had become a powerful social and political tool for mass control to an extent that almost every party and or politician desired to own a piece of the industry (Bingham, 2010). However, in the 1920s, printing costs and advertising revenue competition made it relatively unrealistic for political parties to run newspapers directly. What resulted was a series of takeovers and buyouts favouring the emergence and growth of powerful newspaper chains owned and controlled by a few powerful individuals (Bagdikian 1999, pp. 148-154). Thus emerged the press barons most notably Lord Northcliffe who founded the Daily Mail and bought The Times between 1907 and 1922 (Curran, Aelst and Aalberg 2010, pp. 255-271). A huge number of the literature on press barons usually explores ways in which these media proprietors used their positions vindictively to further their political agendas (Boyce 1987, pp. 56 87). The literature concurs that, based on validated research, all the press barons especially those in Britain exercised a great deal of personal control over what was published in their newspapers (Curran, Aelst and Aalberg 2010, pp. 255-271). This control enabled them to wage and propel political campaigns that they personally subscribed to. Geoffrey Dawson, who was the chief editor at The Times between 1912 and 1919 as well as between 1923 and 1941, is documented for having close association with most of the powerful Neville Chamberlain government officials (Bingham, 2010). Consequently, The Times was a staunch supporter for the policies seeking to appease Nazi Germany, mainly proposed by the Neville Chamberlain government. This was against the stance taken by pro-Conservative newspapers li ke the Daily Telegraph (Bingham, 2010). It is notable that the prominent press barons of post-1945 involved themselves only to a minimal extent with party politics as compared to their pre-war peers (Bingham, 2010). The press had acquired the commercial success and potential that was more lucrative than political influence (Bingham, 2010). Such barons as Roy Thomson, owner of The Sunday Times since 1959 as well as The Times since 1967, had a pure commercial motive. In this age, newspapers gained a less partisan social role and refrained acquiring an editorial bias or loyalty to any party (Bingham, 2010). Besides the political influence, press barons were also very influential on the social front (Boyce 1987, pp. 56 87). The newspapers were a source of entertainment and in most cases determined what was accepted as entertainment and what was rejected. If a play or book was positively featured by the press, it garnered huge popularity (Coleridge 1993, pp. 68 97). Entertainment was largely popularized using the press to an extent that concerns were expressed on how the press was handling their double role of entertaining and informing (Coleridge 1993, pp. 68 97; Croteau and Hoynes 2006, pp. 84 93). This concerns triggered several market surveys, the most significance one being the 1938 Report on the British Press conducted by the Political and Economic Planning policy organisation (Bingham, 2010). The report expressed concerns that the press had acquired a dangerous trend where entertainment stopped being ancillary to the news and supersede or absorbed it (Bingham, 2010). Lord Rothermere and Beaverbrook premised most of their social campaigns on a belief that their popular newspapers could mobilize the power of their readers in challenging any social order or tradition (Lloyd 2004, pp. 28 94). This belief was partly correct in that people were only informed by the newspapers at that time, as the only source of news available to the masses (Bagdikian 1999, pp. 148-154). By 1930s, over 70% of the British and US population read a daily newspaper regularly and almost every family accessed a Sunday paper (Bingham, 2010). As Badsey (2010) posts, Lord Northcliffes newspapers constituted half the all newspapers sold in London in 1914. Badsey (2010) opines that it was Northcliffes success that ultimately ushered the press barons era in Britain. Northcliffe would be joined later in this league of nobles by his brother Rothermere and Canadian Lord Beaverbrook (Daily Express owner). According to Badsey (2010), almost every adult in Britain accessed a national an d or local newspaper on a daily basis, including those in tiny country villages where pages of local newspaper were frequently pinned on public notice boards. Press Barons of the 20th Century and their Influence of Contemporary Media I believe that the press barons of the last century have shaped the way contemporary media is owned and operated in several ways. To begin with, the press barons exercised great influence and control on what was published to an extent that their newspapers editorial policy became their personal campaigns. As Bingham (2010) notes, the British press at the age of press barons was accused repeatedly of being irresponsible and untrustworthy. They were accused of undermining and sidetracking the democratic process as well as poisoning the political debate of the country based on the political inclinations of their owners (Bingham, 2010). The 1921 press campaign that opposed government expenditure is a good example of initiatives exercised their clout to shape political and social issues. In this campaign, Lord Northcliffe and Lord Rothermere successfully backed candidates who supported reduction of government waste in three British by-elections, ultimately leading to a drastic cut in publ ic spending in 1922 (Curran, Aelst and Aalberg 2010, pp. 255-271). This trend is still evident, although the level of control that media proprietors exercise today is covert and subtle. Further, the common trend of the British and US media inciting hostility and apathy against immigrants in this countries as well as their ethnic minorities (which is only now declining) originates from this age when the press barons used their newspapers to campaign for what they felt was the appropriate patriotism (Bingham, 2010). Much of the ethnic hatred and acrimony witnessed at the close of the last century and the beginning years of this century originate from the traditions established by the press barons. As Bingham (2010) postulates, the trend of seeking popularity with the masses by brazening entertainment stories and presenting them as news or as more important than the news is what has nurtured the coarsening trends of public life witnessed today. Just like in the interwar period when celebrity news and personality profiles became an important part of the press coverage, modern media has grown to promote the intrusive and sleazy celebrity culture as more important to the informative content that such media could disseminate (Bingham, 2010). On this count, I concur with Bingham (2010) in noting that the contemporary trends where the media narrows public debate to a particular subject is a culmination of historical tendencies. Promoting human interest and celebrity stories dominantly above informative content, for instance, is a trend that has been inherited over the decades from the press barons who wanted to create popular readership. I believe that contemporary media determines who is elected as a leader in many nations of the world. The media endears some candidates to the electorate while depicting other candidates as villains. This tradition is not unique to contemporary media though. The largest basis of the press barons social and political power was based on ignorance and monopoly. Badsey (2010) opines that the lack of opinion polls or any other way of measuring public opinion, made politicians pay exaggerated respect to and fear of popular newspapers and newspaper owners. Nonetheless, press barons had a considerable power adequate to make a non-entity individual the prime minister of Britain. David Lloyd George for instance, belonged to this breed of so-called populist politicians who solely depended on the press to access power. He thus closely associated himself with the press barons in London as well as their editors, an effort that would ultimately pay off in his capturing of the Prime Minister post in 1916. Recent leaders whose popularity was linked to media patronage include President George Bush (US), Prime Minister Tony Blair (UK), President Silvio Berlusconi (Italy) among others. In Fleet Street, Press Barons and Politics, Collin Brooks narrates a personal account as a journalist and editor in the 1930s, both at the Financial News and the Sunday Dispatch (Crowson 1999, pp. 11 64). In his rise through the ladders to a chief editor, Brooks narrates of an intimate friendship and contact with Lord Rothermere, thus providing a unique and even rare insight into the press barons mentality and operations (Crowson 1999, pp. 11 64). What is most instrumental for the purposes of this paper is Brooks testimony of how the press baron orchestrated his perspective upon the right-wing Conservatism during the reign of Chamberlain and Baldwin using the press outlets he owned (Crowson 1999, pp. 11 64). Such tactics as covering what was supportive to the media owners personal allegiances and then avoiding mentioning whatever was contrary to that allegiance, are still being used by many media owners today. The history of the press barons also points out a very important social role that they played that of social advocacy (Boyce 1987, pp. 56 87). Whenever the press barons supported a particular cause, they were able to rally public and government support in a unique way (Boyce 1987, pp. 56 87). Using this ability, the press barons encouraged civic contributions and improvements, promoted agricultural and business interests, inspired encourage public safety policies and city planning initiatives, an encouraged economic growth and economic expansion among the population (Cox 2005, pp. 24 108). George Bannerman Dealey the founder and long-time proprietor of Dallas Morning News, is reputed to have is reputed to have helped initiate the revolution that modernized Texas beginning late 19th Century to early 20th Century (Cox 2005, pp. 24 94). He strongly advocated for reduced defence spending as well as for more federal investments in the state. A good example is how the Texan Morning New s championed the state government and public to initiate a public education system under the leadership of Dealey (Cox 2005, pp. 68 108). This trend is continuing today. Media owners and influential journalists still wield great influence in triggering social change and economic growth (Jenkins 1986, pp. 76 89). Their participation in charitable causes such as providing aide after a disaster usually attracts mass action. Whether it is to support girl child education in Palestine or to feed starving children in Southern Sudan, the participation of media owners and popular journalists always triggers great public support and collaboration (Curran, Aelst and Aalberg 2010, pp. 255-271). Conclusion This paper has endeavoured to discuss the history of the press barons in the 20th Century considering the press barons influenced the social and political scenes of the era in which they were most dominant. It has emerged that the press barons of the 20th Century have had direct impacts on the contemporary trends of media ownership, control and regulation. The paper has argued that the modern trend of seeking popularity with the masses by brazening entertainment stories and presenting them as news or as more important than the news was nurtured by the press barons who wanted a return on their investment. Further, the trend of owning a series of media outlets that continues even today originates from the need to reach as many people as possible so as to gain a political and social significance capable of influencing public debate and policy. Conclusively therefore, this paper opines that for the press to be truly independent and objective, and for the media to play an instrumental role in socio-economic development of the societies in which they operate, there needs to be separation from their owners influence. Perhaps the answer lies in limiting the number of media outlets that an individual controls, since the more audience a particular media owner reaches, the more powerful and influential he or she becomes. Such media tycoons end up gaining a leadership role whose mandate is not constituted or endorsed by the publics right to democracy (Badsey, 2010). A good illustration is that of the perceived importance given to the London press barons during the WW1, which ultimately saw them assigned public leadership roles they did not qualify. Lord Northcliffe for instance was appointed a Director of Propaganda in Enemy Countries as Lord Beaverbrook was appointed the head of a novel Ministry of Information (Badsey, 2010). Neither of these posts was of prime importance to public good. They were just appeasements to a few individuals who controlled the bulk of the nations only mass media outlets (Badsey, 2010).

Besseren lösungen für detaillierte problemfelder

Besseren là ¶sungen fà ¼r detaillierte problemfelder 1 Grundlagen des Benchmarking Benchmarking (BM) ist, in Ergà ¤nzung zum klassischen Unternehmensvergleich, durch das systematische Suchen nach rationellen Vorgehensweisen und besseren Là ¶sungen fà ¼r detaillierte Problemfelder und Prozesse außerhalb der „eigenen Welt bzw. der eigenen Branche gekennzeichnet. Nicht die Unterschiede zu anderen Unternehmen sind beim Benchmarking der Schwerpunkt der Untersuchung, sondern die gezielte Identifikation der besten Praktiken, mit denen à ¼berdurchschnittliche Wettbewerbspotentiale zu erreichen sind. Benchmarking wird entscheidend durch folgende Frage charakterisiert: „Warum machen es andere besser und was kà ¶nnen wir daraus lernen? Der Beweis der Durchfà ¼hrbarkeit neuer Ideen durch ihre tà ¤gliche Anwendung in anderen Unternehmen und die damit verbundene Motivation der eigenen Mitarbeiter ist ein wesentlicher Bestandteil des Benchmarking. Erst der Blick à ¼ber den eigenen Tellerrand ermà ¶glicht Leistungssprà ¼nge um Grà ¶ÃƒÅ¸enordnungen. Damit erweist sich Benchmarking als ein Instrument zur Leistungssteigerung fà ¼r Unternehmen aus allen Branchen und gewinnt unter den Managementtechniken immer mehr an Bedeutung. Die flexiblen Einsatzmà ¶glichkeiten als „Werkzeug um verkrustete Unternehmensstrukturen aufzudecken oder als Instrument zum Aufzeigen der Optimierungsmà ¶glichkeiten von Geschà ¤ftsprozessen bis hin zur Entscheidungsunterstà ¼tzung bei Fragen der strategischen Ausrichtung machen das Benchmarking wertvoll. Benchmarking darf jedoch nicht als das Wundermittel zur Steigerung der eigenen Wettbewerbsfà ¤higkeit verstanden werden, denn insbesondere klein- und mittelgroße Unternehmen haben noch Schwierigkeiten bei der praktischen Umsetzung des Benchmarking. Das Neue des Benchmarking liegt im branchenà ¼bergreifenden Vergleich mit den Besten und dem Setzen von Maßstà ¤ben fà ¼r das eigene Unternehmen. Die Vorgehensweise des Benchmarking integriert dabei vorhandene Managementmethoden und bringt erst durch eine konsequente, ganzheitliche und kontinuierliche Anwendung den gewà ¼nschten Erfolg. Verschiedene Voraussetzungen sind dazu allerdings erforderlich (siehe Abb. 1): 1.1 Definition Benchmarking ist ein kontinuierlicher Prozeß, bei dem Produkte, Dienstleistungen und insbesondere Methoden betrieblicher Funktionen à ¼ber mehrere Unternehmen hinweg verglichen werden. Dabei sollen die Unterschiede zu anderen Unternehmen offengelegt, die Ursachen fà ¼r die Unterschiede und Mà ¶glichkeiten zur Verbesserung ermittelt werden. Der Vergleich findet dabei zu Unternehmen statt, welche die zu untersuchenden Methoden oder Prozesse hervorragend beherrschen. Diese Unternehmen werden dabei oft als „Klassenbeste best in class bezeichnet. (Vgl. Camp 1989, S.19). 1.2 Ziele des Benchmarking Benchmarking ist an erster Stelle ein Zielsetzungsprozeß. Aber, und das ist wichtiger, es ist ein Mittel, die Praktiken, die zum Erreichen neuer Ziele nà ¶tig sind, zu entdecken und zu verstehen. Diese sind wahrscheinlich das wichtigste und grundlegende Resultat des Benchmarking. Neben dem grundsà ¤tzlichen Ziel des Benchmarking, Vorgaben zu setzen, ist der motivierende Wert ebenfalls erheblich. Wenn Bechmarking voll integriert wird in die Verantwortlichkeiten, Arbeitsprozesse und das Vergà ¼tungssystem, wird die Organisation willens und fà ¤hig, sich aus eigenem Antrieb in Richtung realistischer Ziele zu bewegen und existierende Arbeitspraktiken zu à ¤ndern. Sie wird Maßnahmen ergreifen und Verà ¤nderungen herbeifà ¼hren, die sonst hà ¤tten diktiert werden mà ¼ssen. (Vgl. Camp 1994, S. 34). Benchmarking kann sich dabei auf verschiedene Objekte beziehen (siehe Abb.:2) 1.3 Nutzen des Benchmarking Es gibt viele Wege, den Nutzen zu beschreiben, der aus Bechmarking gezogen werden kann. Der wesentliche Vorteil wird abgeleitet von der Erfà ¼llung von Kundenwà ¼nschen, dem Setzen von Zielen, dem Messen der tatsà ¤chlichen Produktività ¤t, dem Erlangen der Wettbewerbsfà ¤higkeit und dem Sicherstellen, daß die besten Praktiken in den Arbeitsprozeß einbezogen sind. Es kann dabei prinzipiell ein direkter und ein indirekter Nutzen identifiziert werden (siehe Abb.: 3 und 4). 1.4 Entwicklung des Benchmarking 1.4.1 Die ersten Benchmarking-Untersuchungen Ganz neu ist der Ansatz des Benchmarking nicht. Zu Beginn dieses Jahrhunderts wurde vom deutschen Milità ¤r die erste bekannte Studie durchgefà ¼hrt. Man hatte erkannt, daß grà ¶ÃƒÅ¸ere Truppenbewegungen sehr zeitaufwendig und kostenintensiv waren. Durch einen Zeitungsbericht erfuhr ein Soldat, daß es in Amerika einen großen Zirkus gibt, der es schaffte, in einer Nacht die Zelte abzubrechen, sà ¤mtliche Gà ¼ter auf die Bahn zu verladen und mit allen Menschen und Tieren per Bahn in die nà ¤chste Stadt aufzubrechen. Diese schier unglaubliche Leistung bewog das Milità ¤r mit einer Gruppe von Experten in die Vereinigten Staaten zu reisen um sich vor Ort ein Bild von diesem Vorgang zu machen. Es zeigte sich, daß der Zirkus neben einer kompetenten Logistikabteilung spezielle Fahrzeuge entwickelt hatte. Mit diesem Wissen konnte, zurà ¼ck in der Heimat, eine signifikante Verbesserung der Truppenbewegung umgesetzt werden. Die Einfà ¼hrung der ersten Fließbà ¤nder in der Automobilindustrie im Jahre 1916 ist ein weiteres Beispiel der frà ¼hen Anwendung von Bechmarking. Inspiriert durch Besuche einer Großschlachterei in Chicago, wo Schweinehà ¤lften an einer Hà ¤ngebahn von Arbeitsplatz zu Arbeitsplatz transportiert wurden, fà ¼hrte Henry Ford das Fließband in der Automobilindustrie ein. Das Kanban-System stellt ebenfalls eine à ¼bertragung eines Prinzips aus einer anderen Branche dar. Durch das Studium der Organisation amerikanischer Supermarktketten und hier insbesondere das Nachfà ¼llen der Regale entwickelte sich bei Toyota das Prinzip der Kanban-Karten, das heute in vielen Brachen Verbreitung gefunden hat. 1.4.2 Die Prà ¤gung des Begriffs durch Xerox Der Begriff Benchmarking wurde von Xerox im Jahr 1979 geprà ¤gt. Zu dieser Zeit stellte Xerox fest, daß die japanische Konkurrenz Kopierer zu einem Preis verkaufte, der unter den Produktionskosten bei Xerox lag. Xerox startete daraufhin im Fertigungsbereich ein marktbezogenes Benchmarking, das sogenannte Competitive Benchmarking. Die auf dem Markt befindlichen Kopierer wurden hinsichtlich Herstellungskosten, Design und anderer Merkmale studiert und analysiert. Aus diesem Vorgehen wurden neue radikale Ziele abgeleitet. Aufgrund des Erfolges in der Fertigung bestimmte das Management 1981, daß Benchmarking von allen Geschà ¤ftsbereichen durchzufà ¼hren sei. Noch im gleichen Jahr wurde ein branchenà ¼bergreifendes Benchmarking-Projekt in den Bereichen Logistik und Distribution durchgefà ¼hrt. Dies lieferte den endgà ¼ltigen Beweis, daß Benchmarking auch auf Geschà ¤ftsprozesse außerhalb der Produktion à ¼bertragbar ist und Benchmarking-Partner nicht aus der gleichen B ranche stammen mà ¼ssen. Besonders bemerkenswert, blickt man auf den Zeitpunkt Ende der 70er, Anfang der 80er Jahre, ist die Betrachtungsweise von Benchmarking als kontinuierlicher Prozeß. Dies ist eines der wesentlichen Probleme der Praxis. Wichtig ist, schon an dieser Stelle festzuhalten: Industrielle Prozesse unterliegen einem steten Wandel. Immer neue Verà ¤nderungen, Verbesserungen mà ¼ssen dokumentiert und eventuell in einen Benchmarking-Prozeß eingebunden werden. Eine einmalige, Im Hauruck-Verfahren durchgezogene Benchmarking-Aktion kann nicht erfolgreich sein. Robert C. Camp, Benchmarking-Projektleiter bei Xerox bemerkt dazu fast lapidar: „Verfahren mà ¼ssen kontinuierlich beobachtet werden, um sicher zu gehen, daß die wirklich besten ihrer Art ermittelt werden. Ausschließlich jene Unternehmen, die Benchmarking diszipliniert betreiben, werden sich hervorragend weiterentwickeln kà ¶nnen. In einer dem stà ¤ndigen Wandel unterworfenen Umwelt ist Selbstgefà ¤lligkeit fatal (Vgl. C amp 1989, S. 10). 1.5 Der Weg zum Benchmarking / Raus aus dem Controlling! Es gibt verschiedene Grà ¼nde weshalb Benchmarking als Hilfsmittel im Management nicht umfassend genutzt wird. Einer davon ist, daß Benchmarking funktional nicht zugeordnet werden kann. Als Basisinstrument hat es genauso eine Daseinsberechtigung in den Beschaffungs- und den Produktionsbereichen wie im strategischen Marketing oder in der Vertriebslogistik. In der Vergangenheit, war in der Betriebswirtschaft eine fortschreitende Trennung der Funktionalbereiche und ihrer Methodik zu verfolgen. Dies dokumentiert sich bis heute an den Lehrstà ¼hlen europà ¤ischer Wirtschaftshochschulen. Zumindest in Europa entdeckten zuerst die Controller das Hilfsmittel Benchmarking. Diese bereits geà ¼bt im Umgang mit einer Vielzahl von technischen Vergleichswerkzeugen erkannten schnell die Chancen, die die Arbeitstechnik erà ¶ffnete. „Benchmarking ist wichtiger Bestandteil des Instrumentenkastens des zunehmend strategisch orientierten Controllers, schreiben dann auch Horvath und Herter (1992, S.7). Sicher ist es sinnvoll, Benchmarking erst einmal im Controlling anzusiedeln. Der Controller kann anregen, kann Hilfestellungen im Umgang mit verschiedenen Werkzeugen geben, dennoch wird er à ¼ber die nachtrà ¤gliche à ¼berprà ¼fung und Vergleichsrechnung, den Denk- und Kreativprozeß des Benchmarking auf der Management-Schiene nicht ersetzen. Anders als beispielsweise im Target Costing, kann das Controlling sinnvolles Benchmarking nur anregen, stimulieren, nicht jedoch konkrete Zielvorgaben bereitstellen, an denen sich die jeweiligen Funktionsbereiche frei orientieren kà ¶nnen. Im Benchmarking geht es um das Vorausdenken, nicht um das Nachrechnen! Das ist die elementare Botschaft! Und dementsprechend kann die Technik im aktuellen Arbeitsprozeß von allen Funktionsbereichen genutzt werden; egal ob das Marketing seine Feldorganisation à ¼berprà ¼ft, die Produktion bestimmte Montageschritte unter die Lupe nimmt, die Beschaffung den Prozeß der Auftragsvergabe nà ¤her beleuchtet. Fà ¼r all diese Aufgabenstellungen genà ¼gt es nicht, einen Controller aus dem Vergleich entwickelte Zielwerte vorgeben zu lassen. Benchmarking ist ein dialogisches Instrument, das die Leistung aller Mitarbeiter aus den Funktionalbereichen beansprucht (Vgl. Rau, 1996, S. 63). 2 Formen des Benchmarking Prinzipiell kà ¶nnen drei Formen des Benchmarking unterschieden werden, die im europà ¤ischen Rahmen Verwendung finden (sieh Abb.: 5). Das Benchmarking von Unternehmen ist bislang am weitesten verbreitet. Hier lernen Unternehmen voneinander, vergleichen Kennzahlen und tauschen sich à ¼ber die Objekte des Benchmarking aus. Beim Benchmarking von Sektoren wird die Leistungsfà ¤higkeit einzelner Sektoren gegenà ¼bergestellt. Ziel ist es, von anderen Sektoren, die nach ausgewà ¤hlten Kriterien besser erscheinen, zu lernen. Das Benchmarking von Rahmenbedingungen gewinnt insbesondere vor dem Hintergrund der Europà ¤ischen Union eine neue Qualità ¤t. Hierbei sollen in Zukunft z.B. politische, gesellschaftliche oder wirtschaftliche Rahmenbedingungen miteinander verglichen werden, so daß ganze Là ¤nder in die Lage versetzt werden voneinander zu lernen. Im folgenden wird das Benchmarking von Unternehmen nà ¤her beleuchtet, das wiederum in die beiden Klassen internes und externes Benchmarking aufgeteilt werden kann. 2.1 Internes Benchmarking Internes Benchmarking stellt die einfachste Form des Benchmarking dar, da es keinerlei Beschrà ¤nkungen von außen zu beachten gibt. Beim internen Benchmarking versuchen Organisationen, von ihren eigenen Strukturen zu lernen. Es werden à ¤hnliche Ablà ¤ufe untersucht und à ¼ber unterschiedliche Bereiche hinweg miteinander verglichen, um detaillierte Informationen à ¼ber das zur Verfà ¼gung stehende Leistungspotential zu erhalten. Beim internen Benchmarking richtet sich der Blick des Management nach innen. Es gilt aktuelle Arbeitsablà ¤ufe und Praktiken objektiv zu erfassen und diese transparent zu machen. Dadurch erhà ¤lt man die nà ¶tigen Details, um die Ressourcen gezielt auf diejenigen Aspekte zu konzentrieren, die einer à ¤nderung bedà ¼rfen. Hà ¤ufig wird ein internes Benchmarking genutzt, um mit der Methode vertraut zu werden und dieses Wissen fà ¼r ein externes Benchmarking zu nutzen. 2.1.1 Unternehmensbezogenes Benchmarking Innerhalb eines Unternehmens ist es mà ¶glich à ¤hnliche Prozesse zu finden, die man vergleichen kann. Diese Prozesse sind gekennzeichnet durch technologische, organisatorische und personelle Einflà ¼sse und richten sich z.B. auf Zweigwerke oder Abteilungen. 2.1.2 Konzernbezogenes Benchmarking Diese Technik wird eingesetzt beim Vergleich von mehreren Werken oder Unternehmensteilen innerhalb eines Konzerns. Es kann hierdurch die beste Praxis innerhalb der Organisation identifiziert werden und ermà ¶glicht so die klare Identifikation von Schwachstellen. Die Vergleichsmà ¶glichkeiten sind im Gegensatz zum unternehmensbezogenen Benchmarking hà ¶her und stellen damit prinzipiell ein grà ¶ÃƒÅ¸eres Potential dar. Konzernbezogenes Benchmarking eignet sich insbesondere fà ¼r eine objektive, fundierte Vorbereitung eines externen Benchmarking, fà ¼r eine Bestandsaufnahme und zur Verbesserung der Mitarbeiterkommunikation und -motivation. 2.2 Externes Benchmarking Benchmarking ist insbesondere eine Technik, um nach außen zu blicken, wobei ein Vergleich der Praktiken des eigenen Unternehmens mit unternehmensexternen Praktiken vorgenommen wird. Vergleich bedeutet, daß eine Grundlinie der à ¤hnlichkeiten vorhanden sein muß. Diese à ¤hnlichkeiten mà ¼ssen vor dem Benchmarking genau identifiziert werden. Erst dann sind ein gà ¼ltiger Vergleich und die Identifizierung von Verbesserungschancen mà ¶glich (Vgl. Mertins, 1993). Eine grà ¼ndliche Vorbereitung hilft, die beim externen Benchmarking hà ¤ufig anzutreffenden Skeptiker produktiv werden zu lassen. 2.2.1 Marktbezogenes Benchmarking Die Konkurrenzanalyse ist als ein Instrument anzusehen, das Informationen à ¼ber die derzeitigen und zukà ¼nftigen Marktaktività ¤ten der Konkurrenz, deren Stà ¤rken und Schwà ¤chen sowie deren mà ¶gliche Reaktionen auf Marktverà ¤nderungen liefert. Sie là ¤ÃƒÅ¸t einen Vergleich mit Unternehmen zu, die die jeweiligen Unternehmensaktività ¤ten in hervorragender Weise beherrschen, blickt jedoch nicht à ¼ber das Umfeld der direkten Konkurrenz hinaus. Mit dem Marktbezogenen Benchmarking ist es mà ¶glich von der Konkurrenz zu lernen, Verbesserungen einzuleiten und die Marktsituation objektiv im Auge zu behalten. Die externen Anstà ¶ÃƒÅ¸e verhindern die Neigung zur Selbstzufriedenheit und Bà ¼rokratisierung, die in allen Organisationen vorkommt und unterstà ¼tzt so die à ¼berzeugung, daß man immer zumindest ein wenig besser werden kann. Ein wesentlicher Unterschied zwischen einer reinen Konkurrenzanalyse und Benchmarking ist darin zu sehen, daß ein unmittelbarer Informationsaustausch zwischen den Unternehmen etabliert und ein gegenseitiger Lernprozeß initiiert wird. Problematisch dabei ist in der Regel die zu à ¼berwindende Verschlossenheit von Konkurrenten untereinander. Der sogenannte Benchmarking-Verhaltenskodex gibt hierzu zwar Verhaltensregeln, in der Praxis ist es jedoch meist schwer das Konstruktive Gesprà ¤ch aufzunehmen. 2.2.2 Branchenbezogenes Benchmarking Branchenbezogenes Benchmarking geht à ¼ber den bloßen Vergleich zweier Firmen hinaus und hat seinen Schwerpunkt in der Suche nach Trends. Es untersucht also die Leistungsfà ¤higkeit einer bestimmten Funktion in branchenweiter Ausprà ¤gung. Dazu ist es notwendig, eine weit grà ¶ÃƒÅ¸ere Gruppe von Unternehmen zu untersuchen, als dies beim konkurrenzbezogenen Benchmarking der Fall ist. Branchenbezogenes Benchmarking sucht nach Trends statt nach Wettbewerbspositionen und dient zur Leistungsanalyse von Subsystemen. Die Grenzen zum konkurrenzbezogenen Benchmarking sind jedoch fließend, so daß es kein klares Differenzierungsmerkmal gibt, wo eine zielgerichtete Studie aufhà ¶rt und die Trendforschung beginnt. Der wesentliche Vorteil des Branchenbezogenen Benchmarking gegenà ¼ber dem marktbezogenen, ist darin zu sehen, daß keine unmittelbare Wettbewerbssituation besteht, da auf anderen Mà ¤rkten agiert wird. Somit gestaltet sich der Informationstransfer meist offener. Da di e Unternehmen aus der gleichen Branche sind, gibt es jedoch beim Vergleich von Prozessen viele à ¤hnliche Merkmale, was fà ¼r ein erfolgreiches Benchmarking unumgà ¤nglich ist. 2.2.3 Branchenunabhà ¤ngiges Benchmarking Der Schlà ¼ssel zum langfristigen Erfolg im Wettbewerb ist nicht Gleichheit, sondern à ¼berlegenheit. Man mà ¶chte die beste Praxis, wie sie gegenwà ¤rtig existiert einholen und dann à ¼berholen. Deshalb richtet sich Benchmarking an den Besten aus. à ¼ber Branchen hinweg wird nach neuen, innovativen Praktiken, unabhà ¤ngig von ihrer Quelle gesucht. Es geht darum, die besten Praktiken zu finden und zu nutzen, um die vorhandenen Praktiken innerhalb der eigenen Organisation innovativ zu verà ¤ndern. Erfolg an externen Kriterien zu definieren, bedeutet eine Vorstellung von Bestleistung zu entwickeln und das Unternehmen auf ein neues Leistungsniveau zu heben. Benchmarking am Klassenbesten beruht auf der à ¼berzeugung, daß der Prozeß der Wertschà ¶pfung à ¼ber viele unterschiedliche Institutionen hinweg auf à ¤hnlichen Merkmalen beruht. Branchenunabhà ¤ngiges Bechmarking ist zwingend Benchmarking von Geschà ¤ftsprozessen. Voraussetzung ist daher eine klare Definition des zu vergleichenden Prozesses. Bereits wà ¤hrend der Definitionsphase erkennt das Projektteam oft erste Schwachpunkte und kann Maßnahmen zur Verbesserung ableiten. Dies wirkt besonders motivierend auf die Beteiligten. 2.3 Zusammenfassender Vergleich In der folgenden Abb.:6 sind die Vor- und Nachteile der Arten des Unternehmens-Benchmarking zusammengefaßt (Vgl. Pieske, 1994). 3 Die Phasen des Benchmarking Der Benchmarking-Prozeß besteht prinzipiell aus fà ¼nf Kernphasen (Abb.: 7). In der tà ¤glichen Benchmarking Praxis kà ¶nnen diese Kernphasen um unternehmensspezifische Schwerpunkte erweitert werden. 3.1 Zielsetzung Ausgangspunkt des Benchmarking ist die Zielsetzungsphase. Hier wird der Fokus des Benchmarking-Projekts festgelegt. Diese Phase ist fà ¼r den gesamten weiteren Prozeß von entscheidender Bedeutung, da Fehler oder mangelnde Sorgfalt das Ergebnis verfà ¤lschen oder unbrauchbar machen. Es ist wichtig, das Management schon in dieser Phase einzubinden, da die sichtbare Unterstà ¼tzung und die aktive Begleitung der Benchmarking Projekte durch das obere Management wà ¤hrend aller Projektphasen ein Schlà ¼sselfaktor fà ¼r das Gelingen des Benchmarkings ist. Jedes Benchmarking-Projekt sollte einem strukturierten und formalisierten Ablauf folgen. Dadurch kà ¶nnen Meilensteine vereinbart und Ergebnisse besser kontrolliert werden. Im à ¼brigen sind Reihenfolge und Inhalte der Prozeßschritte fà ¼r die Beteiligten leichter nachzuvollziehen. Ausgangspunkt fà ¼r die Bestimmung der Benchmarking-Ziele sind die strategischen Ziele des Unternehmens. Diese Ziele werden bei der Festlegung der Benchmarking-Ziele mit eingearbeitet. Sind die Ziele des Benchmarking-Projektes festgelegt, gilt es, das Benchmarking-Objekt genau abzugrenzen und die Benchmarking-Art festzulegen. Der Zielfindungsprozeß, der am besten in Form eines Workshops erfolgt, kann mit Hilfe verschiedener Techniken unterstà ¼tzt werden (sieh Abb.: 8). Bei einem Zielworkshop sollten zwischen vier und zehn Personen beteiligt sein. Dies sind beim Benchmarking Vertreter des Management, die Prozeß-Eigner und zumindest ein Moderator. Zunà ¤chst schreibt jeder Teilnehmer die Ziele des Benchmarking-Projekts auf Moderationskarten, wobei darauf geachtet werden soll, daß jede Karte nur ein Ziel enthà ¤lt, dieses mà ¶glichst prà ¤gnant und verstà ¤ndlich formuliert und gut leserlich geschrieben ist. Fà ¼nf bis sieben Karten pro Teilnehmer sollten in der Regel ausreichen, da sonst zu viele Ziele generiert werden und eine Strukturierung schwerfà ¤llt. Nach einigen Minuten werden vom Moderator bereits die ersten Karten eingesammelt und gemischt, damit nicht klar erkenntlich ist, von wem welches Ziel formuliert wurde. Die eingesammelten Karten werden an einer Moderationstafel fà ¼r alle Teilnehmer sichtbar angepint. Dies dient nicht zuletzt dazu, daß die Teilnehmer die Mà ¶glichkeit haben, in welche Richtung die anderen Teilnehmer denken und daraus Anregungen fà ¼r weitere Ziele bekommen. Nach etwa weiteren zehn Minuten werden die Teilnehmer sofern diese noch vereinzelt Ziele definieren gebeten, die letzten Ziele zu formulieren. Daraufhin werden auch diese Karten eingesammelt, gemischt und angepint. Nachdem alle Karten an der Tafel hà ¤ngen, werden die Ziele vom Moderator langsam vorgelesen und die Teilnehmer werden gebeten, bei Unklarheiten sofort nachzufragen. In solch einem Falle wird der Kartenautor gebeten, kurz das Ziel zu beschreiben und es wird bei Bedarf im Team eine neue Formulierung entwickelt, die auf einer neuen Karte vom Moderator niedergeschrieben wird. Falls sich einzelne Ziele auf mehreren Karten wiederfinden, wird im Diskussionsprozeß die treffendste Zielformulierung ausgewà ¤hlt und die anderen Karten werden verworfen. Bevor eine Karte verworfen wird, muß jedoch in jedem Fall der Autor gefragt werden, ob er damit einverstanden ist. Nach dieser Runde sollten alle Ziele fà ¼r alle Beteiligten klar verstà ¤ndlich sein und es kann mit der Strukturierung begonnen werden. Dazu wird zunà ¤chst das Oberziel identifiziert und an einer separaten Tafel befestigt. Gemeinsam mit den Teilnehmern wird nun eine Zielhierarchie erarbeitet, was in der Regel die schwierigste Phase des Zielworkshops darstellt. Hierbei wird den Teilnehmern nicht nur der Zusammenhang der verschiedenen Ziele deutlich, sondern auch deren Priorisierung (Vgl. Heisig, 1996). 3.2 Interne Analyse Die interne Analyse ist in den meisten Projekten die zeitintensivste Phase des Benchmarking. Nach einer Untersuchung von 3M werden hier ca. 45% der gesamten Projektlaufzeit benà ¶tigt (siehe Abb.: 9). In dieser Phase wird die Grundlage fà ¼r das Verstà ¤ndnis der eigenen Prozesse gelegt und bereits erste Stà ¤rken und Verbesserungspotentiale aufgedeckt. 3.2.1 Geschà ¤ftsprozesse und ihre Beschreibung Unter einem Geschà ¤ftsprozeß ist ein Ablauf zu verstehen, der im allgemeinen Sinn Objekte verarbeitet bzw. transformiert. Die Objekte, die zur Beschreibung der Geschà ¤ftsprozesse eines Unternehmens verwendet werden sind Produkt, Auftrag und Ressource. Produkte sind die konkreten Gà ¼ter und Dienstleistungen, die das Unternehmen an den Kunden liefert bzw. die Materialien, Rohstoffe und Dienstleistungen, die zur Produkt- bzw. Serviceerstellung verwendet werden (Zulieferprodukte). Auftrà ¤ge veranlassen die Durchfà ¼hrung von Aktionen. Grà ¶ÃƒÅ¸ere Unternehmen unterscheiden meistens mehrere Arten von Auftrà ¤gen, z.B. Werkstattauftrà ¤ge, in denen Produkte aus mehreren Kundenauftrà ¤gen, gefertigt werden. Ressourcen sind alle Betriebsmittel, die fà ¼r die Produkt- oder Serviceherstellung benà ¶tigt werden. Dies kà ¶nnen Maschinen, Werkzeuge und Transportmittel, aber auch Personen sein. Auch Informationen kà ¶nnen Ressourcen sein, wenn man beispielsweise an Zeichnungen denkt, in denen angegeben ist, wie ein Produkt zusammengebaut werden soll. Diesen drei Objektarten ist gemeinsam, daß sich ihr Zustand durch die Bearbeitung à ¤ndert. Die Bearbeitung selbst wird durch die Aktion, die vierte Objektart dargestellt. Mit diesen vier Objektarten ist es mà ¶glich, Geschà ¤ftsprozesse einheitlich zu beschreiben. Gerichtete Pfeile geben an, in welcher Reihenfolge Objekte verà ¤ndert werden. 3.2.2 Informationen, die aus einem Geschà ¤ftsprozeßmodell gewonnen werden kà ¶nnen Ein Geschà ¤ftsprozeßmodell kann Ausgangspunkt fà ¼r weitere Untersuchungen, Vergleiche und Verbesserungen sein. Sinnvolle Fragestellungen betreffen die Effizienz der dargestellten Prozesse. Einige Beispiele: Wie oft werden Angebote à ¼berarbeitet? Gilt der dargestellte Ablauf fà ¼r alle Auftragsarten? Welche Durchlaufzeit ergibt sich fà ¼r die einzelnen Phasen eines Geschà ¤ftsprozesses? Lassen sich Ablà ¤ufe parallel durchfà ¼hren? Das Geschà ¤ftsprozeßmodell ist daher Diskussionsgrundlage fà ¼r die Mitglieder des Benchmarking-Teams und trà ¤gt somit bereits zu mehr Transparenz bei. Den Abschluß dieser Phase bildet die Formulierung eines Fragekatalogs. Diese Fragen beziehen sich auf das Gesamtprojekt und seine Einbindung, Teilaspekte bzw. Prozesse, Meßgrà ¶ÃƒÅ¸en sowie die Praktikabilità ¤t von im Rahmen der internen Analyse erkannten Optimierungsmà ¶glichkeiten des Benchmarking-Objekts. Die genaue Definition der Meßgrà ¶ÃƒÅ¸en stellt dabei einen wesentlichen Schritt zur Gewà ¤hrleistung der Vergleichbarkeit dar. Die Benchmarking-Praxis zeigt allerdings, daß gleiche Begriffe nicht nur in verschiedenen Unternehmen, sondern innerhalb eines Unternehmens hà ¤ufig unterschiedlich verstanden werden. Der Fragebogen dient jedoch nicht nur zur Sammlung der Meßgrà ¶ÃƒÅ¸en bei potentiellen Vergleichsunternehmen, sondern là ¤ÃƒÅ¸t die angesprochenen Unternehmen auch erkennen, ob ein Benchmarking mit ihnen sinnvoll erscheint. Bei der Formulierung der Fragen sollte man darauf achten, daß Die Fragen allgemeinverstà ¤ndlich sind Die genaue Definition von Meßgrà ¶ÃƒÅ¸en enthalten ist Der Grund fà ¼r die Erhebung klar wird 3.3 Die Vergleichsphase In dieser Phase stehen die Auswahl von Vergleichsunternehmen und der Vergleich der Objekte, hier die Prozesse, im Vordergrund. Eine besondere Schwierigkeit dieser Phase ist es, Partner zu finden, die bereit sind, sich offen auszutauschen und damit in einen gegenseitigen Lernprozeß einzusteigen. Dies bedeutet, daß der Partner einen vergleichbaren Prozeß bzw. Prozeßabschnitt in seinem Unternehmen etabliert hat, bei diesem Prozeß zumindest in Teilaspekten besser ist und zur Teilnahme bereit ist. Der Auswahlprozeß des geeigneten Partners gliedert sich in eine Generierungs- und eine sich anschließende Selektionsphase. Ziel der Generierungsphase ist es, mà ¶glichst viele unterschiedliche, potentielle Benchmarking-Partner zu finden, wozu prinzipiell verschiedene Vorgehensweisen geeignet sind (siehe Abb.:12) In der Praxis bietet sich immer eine Kombination der unterschiedlichen Methoden an. So werden im Benchmarking-Team Vorschlà ¤ge in Form eines Brainstormings erarbeitet, wà ¤hrend parallel jedes Mitglied aufgefordert ist, à ¼ber die Literatur und à ¼ber Preistrà ¤ger an relevante Informationen zu kommen. Aufgabe der Selektionsphase ist die Verdichtung der vorhandenen Informationen anhand von Bewertungskriterien. Die Selektionsphase stà ¼tzt sich auf die bereits beschriebenen Informationsquellen sowie auf Fragebogenaktionen und Telefoninterviews bei Benchmarking-Partnern. Zu den Bewertungskriterien gehà ¶ren Gà ¼te, Qualità ¤t und Vergleichbarkeit des Benchmarking-Objektes, die Professionalità ¤t des potentiellen Vergleichpartners und eine Gewichtung in Abhà ¤ngigkeit von der Zielsetzung. Weiter ist auch nach Aspekten wie Mà ¶glichkeit, Aufwand und Nutzen der Datenbeschaffung, der à ¼berprà ¼fbarkeit und Interpretationsmà ¶glichkeit der Daten sowie der daraus resultierenden Ergebnisse auszuwà ¤hlen. Wirtschaftliche Parameter und das Image des Partnerunternehmen sind von untergeordneter Bedeutung, sollten aber in der Bewertung berà ¼cksichtigt werden. Nach Abschluß des Selektionsprozesses werden in der Regel acht bis zwà ¶lf Unternehmen zur ersten Kontaktaufnahme ausgew à ¤hlt. Abschließend findet Priorisierung der ausgewà ¤hlten Vergleichsunternehmen statt. Ergebnis ist eine Auflistung der Auswahlpartner in Rangfolge. Sie dient der Reihenfolge der Ansprache von Vergleichsunternehmen. Die Herausforderung wà ¤hrend der Durchfà ¼hrung des eigentlichen Vergleichs besteht darin, den Vergleichsprozeß wirklich zu verstehen, seine Stà ¤rken zu erkennen und die Wirkungszusammenhà ¤nge zu begreifen. Hilfreich dabei sind Kennzahlen, die eine Gegenà ¼berstellung vereinfachen, eine Modellierung, die den Prozeß schnell verstà ¤ndlich macht und ein Fragebogen an den Partner, anhand dessen er sich in die Problematik einarbeiten und fà ¼r den Austausch vorbereiten kann. Der persà ¶nliche Austausch von Informationen ist jedoch durch keine Kennzahlen oder Prozeßmodellierungen zu ersetzen. Gerade beim Zusammentreffen der Benchmarking-Partner, der am besten bei einem der beiden Partner und nicht auf neutralem Boden stattfinden sollte, werden Informationen ausgetauscht, die sich schwer in Worte fassen lassen. Hier findet das eigentliche gegenseitige Lernen statt. Fà ¼r die Prozeßbewertung kà ¶nnen die Leistungsparameter der Prozesse herangezogen werden. Diese mà ¼ssen jedoch relativiert werden, da bei der Gegenà ¼berstellung von Zahlen stets die interne Situation und die Umwelt der Benchmarking-Partner berà ¼cksichtigt werden mà ¼ssen, also die Voraussetzungen und Randbedingungen, unter denen die Ergebnisse erzielt wurden. Nicht die bloßen Zahlen sind zu betrachten, sondern die Geschà ¤ftsprozesse hinter den Zahlen mà ¼ssen verstanden werden. Bezogen auf den eigenen Prozeß muß bestimmt werden, welche Praktiken geeignet sind, die gesetzten Ziele zu erreichen, und welche Mà ¶glichkeiten sich durch die à ¼bertragung ergeben. Dazu sind die Ursachen in den Leistungsunterschieden zu analysieren. Nur wenn die tatsà ¤chlichen Grà ¼nde identifiziert werden, kà ¶nnen à ¼ber den reinen Vergleich hinaus die unterschiedlichen Potentiale der verschiedenen Prozesse aufgedeckt, die Realisierbarkeit bewertet und zukà ¼nftige Entwick lungen vorausgesagt werden. Das Ergebnis der Vergleichsphase ist die Kombination der bezà ¼glich der einzelnen Teilaspekte des Benchmarking-Objektes am besten erachteten Praktiken und Parameter. Man erhà ¤lt bezogen auf den untersuchten Geschà ¤ftsprozeß die bei den verschiedenen Benchmarking-Partnern erkannten besten Praktiken, da kein einzelnes Unternehmen fà ¼r sich in Anspruch nehmen kann, in allen Belangen fà ¼hrend zu sein. 3.4 Ableitung von Maßnahmen Die Aufgabe des Benchmarking-Teams besteht darin, die Resultate aus den Analysen dem Management, den F

David Copperfield: The Many Differences Between James Steerforth And T :: essays research papers

David Copperfield: The many differences between James Steerforth and Tommy Traddles In the novel, David Copperfield, Charles Dickens contrasts many different characters. The main two characters that he contrasts are Tommy Traddles and James Steerforth. He displays the contrast between these two characters in many different ways. The only common thing that they share is their close friendship with David. Dickens shows these differences through their looks, personalities, and the final results of their lives. For one thing, Charles Dickens contrasts these two characters through their looks. He tells the readers that James Steerforth is an extremely handsome young person whom everyone seems to adore. In every instance in the book when someone sees him for the first time, they recognize him as being very attractive. He was described as being tall and thin character. On the other hand, Traddles was pictured as being somewhat on the heavy side. He reminds the reader of the fat clumsy kid in their own school. Dickens portrays this when he says, "Poor Traddles! In a tight sky-blue suit that made his arms and legs like German sausages, or roly-poly puddings," (143). Besides being different in appearance, Charles Dickens contrasts these two characters through their personalities. From the beginning, James Steerforth leads people to believe that he is a good person. There are many instances in which he shows off his true colors. The first sign of his deceitful manner occurs when David allows Steerforth to keep his money. Steerforth uses this money to buy food for many of the students. Steerforth displays his selfishness when he insults his schoolmaster, Mr. Mell, and gets him fired. Again, Steerforth shows his stern personality again when David arrives in London, and he is given a very small room over a stable. Steerforth confronts the hotel employee, and David is given a much better room. The greatest example of Steerforth's brute personality is when he runs off with little Em'ly. Dickens tells us that Steerforth and Em'ly fought a lot and finally Steerforth leaves her, and suggests she marries Littimer. On the other hand, Tommy Traddles is a very nice person. Traddles shows his kindness by introducing David to the boys at the Salem House. Charles Dickens shows Traddles' personality when he says of him, "He was very honourable, Traddles was, and held it as a solemn duty in the boys to stand by one another" (143). Traddles is a strong-willed person. Even though he receives more punishment than anyone else at the school, he maintains his honor. Traddles is a very reserved person. He keeps many of his feelings

How The Internet Got Started :: essays research papers

How The Internet Got Started   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some thirty years ago , the Rand corporation , America's formost cold war think tank, faced a strange straegic problem. How could the US authrieties succesfully communicate after a nuclear war?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Postnuclear America would need a comand-and-control network, linked from city to city , state to state, base to base . But no matter how throughly that network was armored or protected , its switches and wiring would always be vulnerable to the impact of atomic bombs. A nuclear attack would reduce any conceivable network to tatters. And how would the network itself be commanded and controlled ? Any central authority, any network central citadel, would be an obvious and immediate target for man enemy missle. The center of the network would be the very first place to go.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  RAND mulled over this grim puzzle in deep military secrecy, and arrived at a daring solution made in 1964.The principles were simple . The network itself would be assumed to be unreliable at all times . It would be designed from the get-go to tyranscend its all times . It would be designed from the get-go to transcend its own unrreliability. All the nodes from computers in the network would be equal in status to all other nodes , each node with its own authority to originate , pass , and recieve messages. The messages would be divided into packets, each packet seperatly addressed. Each packet would begin at some specified source node , and end at some other specified destination node . Each packet would wind its way through the network on an individual basis.In fall 1969, the first such node was insalled in UCLA. By December 1969, there were 4 nodes on the infant network, which was named arpanet, after its Pentagon sponsor. The four computers could even be programed remotely from the other nodes. thanks to ARPANET scientists and researchers could share one another's computer facilities by long -distance . This was a very handy service , for computer- time was precious in the early ‘70s. In 1971 ther were fifteen nodes in Arpanet; by 1972, thirty-seven nodes. And it was good. As early as 1977, TCP/IP was being used by other networks to link to ARPANET. ARPANET itself remained fairly tightly controlled,at least until 1983,when its military segment broke off and became MILNET. TCP/IP became more common,entire other networks fell into the digital embrace of the Internet,and messily adhered. Since the software called TCP/IP was public domain and he basic technology was decentralized and rather anarchic by its very nature,it as difficult to stop people from barging in linking up somewhere or other.